A unique aircraft is the Tu-160 strategic bomber. “White Swan” or Blackjack, according to the terminology invented by the American side, is often called this powerful model.
Currently, this particular model of air transport, developed in the mid-70s by Soviet design engineers, is the largest, most formidable and at the same time graceful military bomber, equipped with a variable glassy wing. The strategic White Swan aircraft replenished the stock of weapons of the Russian army back in 1987.
Airplane Tu-160
According to an order issued by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union in 1967, domestic manufacturers began designing a new bomber. Employees of the Myasishchev and Sukhoi enterprises took part in the development of the project, making various proposals for the project being created over the course of several years.
For some reason, representatives of the airline named after Tupolev did not take part in the competition, despite the fact that earlier the engineers of this particular bureau were able to develop and put into operation a project to create several models of bombers, as well as the Tu-144 supersonic aircraft . The air force in question is the backbone of Russia's nuclear power. And this fact is confirmed by the excellent technical characteristics of the Tu-160.
Based on the results of the qualifying competition, the project created by Myasishchev employees was recognized as the winner. However, literally a few days later, by order of the government, all documentation was confiscated from the winner and transferred to the disposal of the Tupolev bureau. This is how the Tu-160 aircraft was created.
The design engineers were given specific goals regarding the creation of the future military vehicle:
The first test flight of a military vehicle was carried out at the end of 1981 on the territory of the Ramenskoye military airfield. The tests were successful, which was confirmed by experienced pilot B. Veremeev, who piloted the first model.
Tu-160 cockpit
The supersonic Russian missile carrier was put into serial production 3 years after the successful test flight. New models of airborne military equipment were manufactured by specialists working at the aviation enterprise in Kazan. The first serial production model was able to take to the skies at the end of 1984, subsequently the aircraft manufacturer annually produced one unit of popular military aircraft.
By order of B. Yeltsin, at the beginning of 1992, it was decided to stop mass production of Tu-160 models. The then-current president made this decision in response to the US decision to suspend production of the equally powerful American B-2 military bombers.
In the spring of 2000, an updated model of the Tu-160 missile carrier joined the Russian Air Force. After 5 years, the complex was put into service. In the spring of 2006, the last test tour of modernization to improve the characteristics of the NK-32 power unit came to an end. Thanks to the changes made, the design engineers managed to increase the reliability of the power unit and increase its service life several times.
An updated serial bomber flew into the sky at the end of 2007. According to previously approved plans, the designers were supposed to modernize 3 more models of military aircraft over the next 12 months. By looking at photos of the Tu-160 early and updated models, you can independently understand what a tremendous job the design engineers had to do.
According to analytical data, in 2013 there were 16 Tu-160 models in the Russian Air Force.
Sergei Shoigu made a statement in 2015, which emphasized the importance of resuming the most powerful bombers. The application was reviewed and approved, which allowed Russian aircraft designers to begin resuming the production process. According to preliminary data, the updated models of the Tu-160 M and Tu-160 M2 bombers will be put into mass production at the beginning of 2023.
In order to create a truly unique model of a military aircraft that meets the set goals, the designers were forced to introduce certain features into the standard assembly rules, thanks to which the Tu-160 aircraft truly turned out to be unique of its kind:
The Russian bomber is armed with cruise missiles of the X-55-SM class.
The TU-160 strategic bomber, the so-called “White Swan” or Blackjack (baton) in NATO terminology, is a unique aircraft. This is the personification of the power of modern Russia. The TU-160 has excellent technical characteristics: it is the most formidable bomber in the world, capable of carrying cruise missiles as well. the largest and most aesthetically pleasing supersonic aircraft in the world. It was developed in the 1970-1980s at the Tupolev Design Bureau and is equipped with a variable sweep wing. The TU-160 has been in service since 1987.
The TU-160 bomber was a response to the US AMSA (Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft) program, within which the notorious B-1 Lancer was created. The TU-160 missile carrier was significantly ahead of its main competitors, including the notorious Lancer, in almost all characteristics. The speed of the TU-160 is 1.5 times higher, the maximum flight range and combat radius are just as large, and the engine thrust is almost twice as powerful. For the sake of the stealth aircraft, the creators of the B-2 Spirit sacrificed everything they could, including range, flight stability and the vehicle’s carrying capacity.
The long-range missile carrier TU-160 is a “piecemeal” and expensive product with unique technical characteristics. In total, only 35 of these aircraft were built, and far fewer of them remain airworthy today. Nevertheless, the TU-160 remains a threat to enemies and the pride of Russia. This aircraft is the only product that received its own name. The planes bear the names of sports champions (“Ivan Yarygin”), designers (“Vitaly Kopylov”), heroes (“Ilya Muromets”) and, of course, pilots (“Pavel Taran”, “Valery Chkalov” and others).
After the collapse of the USSR, 19 bombers of this type remained in Ukraine, at the base in Priluki. However, these vehicles were too expensive to operate for this country, and the new Ukrainian army simply did not need them. Ukraine offered to exchange these 19 TU-160s to Russia for Il-76s (in a ratio of 1 to 2) or to write off the gas debt. But for Russia this turned out to be unacceptable. In addition, the United States influenced Ukraine, which actually forced it to destroy 11 Ukrainian TU-160s. But 8 aircraft were nevertheless transferred to Russia for partial write-off of the gas debt.
As of 2013, the Air Force operated 16 Tu-160 bombers. For Russia this is an prohibitively small number, but the construction of new ones would cost a huge amount. Therefore, it was decided to modernize 10 of the existing bombers to the Tu-160M standard. Long-range aviation should receive 6 modernized TU-160s in 2019. However, in modern conditions, even modernization of existing TU-160s will not help solve defense problems. Therefore, plans emerged to build new missile carriers. The resumption of production of aircraft of the Tu-160M / Tu-160M2 classification is expected no earlier than 2023
In 2019, Kazan decided to consider the possibility of starting production of the new TU-160 at KAZ facilities. These plans were formed as a result of the current international situation. This is a complex, but solvable task: over the years, some technologies and personnel have been lost. The cost of one TU-160 missile carrier is about 250 million dollars.
The task for designing a missile carrier was formulated back in 1967 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The design bureaus of Myasishchev and Sukhoi were involved in the work, and a few years later they proposed their own options. These were projects of bombers capable of reaching supersonic speed to overcome air defense systems. The Tupolev design bureau, which had experience in developing Tu-22 and Tu-95 bombers, as well as the Tu-144 supersonic aircraft, did not participate in the competition. In the end, the Myasishchev Design Bureau project was recognized as the winner, but the designers did not even have time to really celebrate the victory: the government soon decided to close the project at the Myasishchev Design Bureau. All documentation on the M-18 was transferred to the Tupolev Design Bureau, which joined the competition with Izdeliye-70 (the future TU-160 aircraft).
The following requirements were imposed on the future bomber:
The first flight of the prototype (Izdeliye "70-01") was carried out at the Ramenskoye airfield in December 1981. Product “70-01” was piloted by test pilot Boris Veremeev and his crew. The second copy (product "70-02") did not fly, it was used for static tests. Later, a second aircraft (product “70-03”) joined the tests. The supersonic missile carrier TU-160 was put into serial production in 1984 at the Kazan Aviation Plant. In October 1984, the first production vehicle took off.
Initially, the TU-160 was built as a carrier of long-range cruise missiles with nuclear warheads, designed to deliver massive attacks on areas. In the future, it was planned to expand and modernize the range of transportable ammunition, as evidenced by stencils on the doors of the cargo compartments with options for hanging a huge range of cargo.
The TU-160 is armed with Kh-55SM strategic cruise missiles, which are used to destroy stationary targets having given coordinates; they are entered into the missile’s memory before the bomber takes off. The missiles are located six at a time on two MKU-6-5U drum launchers in the cargo compartments of the aircraft. The weaponry for short-range engagement may include hypersonic aeroballistic missiles Kh-15S (12 for each MKU).
After appropriate conversion, the bomber can be equipped with free-fall bombs of various calibers (up to 40,000 kg), including disposable cluster bombs, nuclear bombs, sea mines and other weapons. In the future, the bomber's armament is planned to be significantly expanded through the use of high-precision cruise missiles of the latest generation, the X-101 and X-555, which have an increased range.
If you have any questions, leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them
The domestic aircraft “White Swan” was developed and created by the Tupolev Design Bureau in cooperation with the Kazan Aviation Plant named after Gorbunov. It is a supersonic strategic bomber. The first flight of the aircraft was made in 1981, and the aircraft was put into service five and a half years later. Presumably, a total of three and a half dozen units of this machine were produced. Currently, half of them are in operation, the rest are out of order.
The White Swan aircraft has a combat range of at least six thousand kilometers in the air without additional refueling. The maximum speed of the machine ranges from a thousand kilometers per hour at low altitudes and up to two and a half thousand at high altitudes. The aircraft received its unique name due to its excellent maneuverability and original white coloring.
The “White Swan” is an aircraft that is designed primarily to deliver nuclear and standard bombs, including deep-dive missiles. The machine can perform direct functions in any weather in regions with different climates. The power plants of the “iron bird” are placed on the wings in pairs in two rows. The air intakes are equipped with vertical valves, and the total thrust of the engines is twenty-five thousand kilograms. The bomber can be refueled directly in the air; when not operational, the additional probe is hidden in the fuselage compartment under the pilot's cabin. Initially, the device can take on board up to one and a half tons of fuel.
Below are the technical plan parameters for the jet bomber in question:
In addition, the White Swan military aircraft has a high-speed climb of 4400 meters per minute, and also has armament thrust indicators in the range of 0.3-0.37 units. The takeoff run length before takeoff is nine hundred meters.
The armament of the Soviet Union in the seventies of the last century had good nuclear potential. However, in terms of strategic aviation, there was a significant lag behind its closest competitors. In those days, this category was represented by subsonic bombers, which were not able to overcome the air defense of a mock enemy.
In this regard, the government decides to create a multi-mode strategic military aircraft. Development is entrusted to two design bureaus (Sukhoi and Myasishchev). Engineers take diametrically different approaches, but have one common point of contact. It concerns the swept-type wing.
The Tupolev team started working in 1969, after the government set specific deadlines. The White Swan aircraft is the only category in Soviet aviation that was given its own name. In turn, most units of this class are additionally named after heroes, fairy-tale characters, and the like.
At the first stages of development of a new bomber, the command recognized the design bureau SU project under the designation T-4M as better. However, the designers were simultaneously creating the SU-27 fighters. It was decided to transfer all the information about the heavy aircraft being created to the engineers of the Tupolev bureau.
At this stage, the White Swan aircraft could cease to exist by renaming it T-4M. However, Tupolev abandons the proposed project and decides to continue working on a bomber with variable sweep wings. In addition, the customer voiced two mandatory requirements:
The new aircraft used the most advanced technologies and materials at that time, developed a reinforced landing gear, modernized the engine and a number of other components. The code name of the model is TU-160M. The unit was equipped with various parts produced at five hundred enterprises.
Let's look at the differences between the models that were produced based on the Tu-160:
The White Swan aircraft, the photo of which is presented below, is considered one of the most powerful and fastest in the world. It has a wingspan of thirty-five to fifty-five meters with a constant area of 232 square meters. m. Practical flight altitude possibilities are over twenty kilometers. for comparison, a passenger airliner can travel no more than 11.5 km. The bomber's flight duration is over fifteen hours with a combat radius of five thousand kilometers.
The unit is operated by a crew of four people. The length and height of the flying ship allows crew members to stand up to their full height, and there is a kitchen and bathroom on board. Four power units arranged in pairs are pressed against the fuselage. When the boost mode is turned on, the speed of the White Swan aircraft can reach 2,300 kilometers per hour. At takeoff, this figure is four thousand meters per minute; the machine can take off from a runway no less than eight hundred meters long, and land on a similar platform, the length of which is two or more kilometers.
The bomber in question was specifically designed to be capable of launching guided missiles. That is, it does not have to hover over the intended location of a military strike. The “White Swan” is an aircraft whose technical parameters allow it to fire long-range shots and can be equipped with two types of cruise missiles (Kh-55SM or Kh-15S). Even before departure, the coordinates of the conditional or real target are entered into the charge memory blocks. The attack aircraft is capable of carrying from twelve to twenty-four missiles of this type.
Most modifications can be equipped with the following weapons:
The available ammunition makes it possible to hit targets at long range, both ground and sea units.
The TU-160 “White Swan” aircraft under the symbol M is the latest modernization released into mass production. The device is equipped with new weapons and modern radio-electronic equipment. The bomber can carry about ninety OFAB charges on board, each of which weighs five hundred kilograms. If we compare the aircraft in question with the British analogue "Typhoon", the domestic model is superior to the "British" in most respects. For example, it has four times the flight range without refueling, better engine efficiency, and is also capable of carrying more bombs and missiles.
The combat aircraft in question is a one-piece and expensive product and has unique characteristics. Only thirty-five copies were produced in series production, many of which no longer remain. One feature worth noting is the individual names. Among them are the following options:
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, nineteen cars remained in Ukraine. They did not justify themselves because they did not find practical application. There were even attempts to pay for gas with the Russian Federation using them. As a result, most of the “swans” were simply cut up for scrap metal.
As of 2013, the Russian Air Force operated sixteen Tu-160 units. Taking into account modern realities, these machines are few for such a country, and the production of new ones requires significant financial investments. It was decided to modernize ten bombers, as well as plan the development of a new type of missile carriers.
The White Swan aircraft, whose performance still remains one of the best in its class, is currently out of production. There is unconfirmed information about the possible resumption of production of units based on the TU-160, but much depends on the economic situation and the demand for the machines. It is worth noting that this aircraft was not produced for export.
Below is a comparative description of the main parameters between the White Swan, the American B-1 and the English Typhoon:
Tu-160 M "White Swan" | US-made aircraft branded B-1 | English fighter-attack aircraft "Typhoon" |
Flight range without additional refueling - 12.5 thousand kilometers | 2.5 times lower | Four times lower |
Portable weapons (bombs and cruise missiles) - at least 90 units | One and a half times less | Twice smaller |
Speed indicators - up to 2,300 km/h | One and a half times lower | Almost twice as bad |
Power of power plants - 1,800 *4 | Almost twice as low | 2.1 times weaker |
Giving tasks to the designers, the customer (the USSR government) presented a number of mandatory requirements that the aircraft of the new formation must have:
For the first time, the prototype, coded 70-01, flew from the Ramenskoye airfield. This happened at the end of 1981, the plane was flown by test pilot B. Veremeev.
The supersonic bomber was launched into serial production in 1984 at a training ground in Kazan. From the autumn of 1984 to the summer of 1986, four production modifications took to the skies.
The White Swan aircraft, the photo of which is presented above, is a unique jet bomber, the likes of which have not been seen in the world for a long time. Its characteristics and capabilities are recognized by experts as one of the best in its class. Unfortunately, the mass production of these devices was quite limited due to the high cost of materials, assembly and equipment. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, production of these aircraft ceased, but some of the manufactured samples are still in operation, showing excellent results, even in comparison with the best foreign analogues.
More than three decades ago, the first flight of the largest supersonic aircraft Tu-160 in the history of military aviation took place at the Ramenskoye airfield near Moscow.
The Americans called the new Russian bomber Blakjack or “Black Jack”.
Among our pilots, he received the lyrical nickname “White Swan”.
It is believed that the development of a new Soviet bomber was a response to the American B-1 strategic bomber. 
In almost all characteristics, the Tu-160 is significantly ahead of its main competitor.
The speed of the “swans” is 1.5 times higher, the combat radius and maximum flight range are just as large, and the engines are almost twice as powerful. 
The Council of Ministers of the USSR formulated the task for the development of a future strategic bomber in 1967. Initially, the Sukhoi and Myasishchev Design Bureaus were involved in the work.
Already in 1972, design bureaus presented their projects - “product 200” and M-18.
The State Commission also accepted for consideration the out-of-competition project of the Tupolev Design Bureau. The members of the competition committee liked the M-18 project from the Myasishchev Design Bureau the most. It met the stated requirements of the Air Force.
Due to its versatility, the aircraft could be used to solve various types of problems, had a wide range of speeds and a long flight range. However, taking into account the experience of the Tupolev Design Bureau in creating such complex supersonic aircraft as the Tu-22M and Tu-144, the development of the strategic carrier aircraft was entrusted to the Tupolev team.
The developers of the Tupolev Design Bureau abandoned the documentation on existing projects and began to independently continue work on shaping the appearance of the new attack aircraft. 
In total, about 800 enterprises and organizations of various profiles were engaged in work on the Tu-160 in the USSR.
Serial production of the aircraft was organized at the Kazan KAPO named after Gorbunov, where they are still produced today. And, despite the fact that in 1992 it was announced that bomber production would be curtailed, work resumed in the early 2000s.
The Tu-160 became the first domestic serial heavy aircraft to use a fly-by-wire control system. As a result, the flight range has increased, controllability has improved, and the load on the crew in difficult situations has decreased. 
The bomber's sighting and navigation system includes a forward-looking radar and an OPB-15T optical-television sight.
The Baikal onboard defense complex has radio and infrared threat detection equipment, radio countermeasures systems, and fireable decoy cartridges.
During the development of the aircraft, the ergonomics of the workplaces were improved, the number of instruments and indicators was reduced, in comparison with the Tu-22M3. To control the aircraft, there are not steering wheels, as is customary on heavy aircraft, but handles. 
Initially, the aircraft was planned exclusively as a missile carrier - a carrier of long-range cruise missiles with nuclear warheads.
In the future, it was planned to modernize and expand the range of transportable ammunition. 
Today, the aircraft can also be equipped with free-falling bombs (up to 40 tons) of various calibers, including nuclear ones, disposable cluster bombs, sea mines and other weapons. 
In the future, the bomber’s armament is planned to be significantly strengthened with the help of the new generation high-precision cruise missiles X-555 and X-101, which have an increased range and are designed to destroy both strategic and tactical ground and sea targets. 
A control system for the engine and fuel consumption, alignment, as well as a service system, from which in crisis situations the crew can receive a hint about the most optimal actions for the Tu-160, were developed by Aviation Electronics and Communication Systems OJSC.
The aircraft is equipped with four NK-32 engines, developed at OJSC Kuznetsov, which is now part of the Rostec holding - United Engine Corporation (UEC). Structurally, the NK-32 is a three-shaft dual-circuit engine with mixing of output flows and a common afterburner with an adjustable nozzle.
Next year, Kuznetsov plans to transfer to the Ministry of Defense the first NK-32 engine, produced on new production equipment using new technologies. 
But still, the main feature of the bomber design is the variable wing sweep.
This design solution was also used in the American analogue - V-1.
The wings of the “White Swan” can change their sweep from 20 to 65 degrees. 
This solution has a number of advantages.
During takeoff and landing, the aircraft's wings are spread to the sides, their sweep is minimal.
This allows you to achieve minimum takeoff and landing speeds.
For all its weight, the aircraft does not require overly long runways; it only needs 2.2 km for takeoff and 1.8 km for landing. 
On the other hand, increasing the sweep, when the wings are pressed against the fuselage during flight, reduces aerodynamic drag and allows one to achieve maximum supersonic speed.
For example, if a civil airliner covers a distance of 8,000 km on average in 11 hours, then the Tu-160 can fly in 4 hours without refueling.
Thus, the Tu-160 can be considered a “multi-mode” bomber, that is, capable of sub- and supersonic flight. 
The aircraft's high flight characteristics are confirmed by a number of world records.
In total, the Tu-160 set 44 world speed and flight altitude records.
In particular, a flight along a closed route of 1000 km with a payload of 30 tons was carried out at an average speed of 1720 km/h.
One of the latest established is the maximum range flight record. The flight duration was 24 hours 24 minutes, while its range was 18 thousand km. 
Currently, the Russian Air Force has 16 Tu-160s in service. 
Each of the planes has its own name: “Ilya Muromets”, “Ivan Yarygin”, “Vasily Reshetnikov”, “Mikhail Gromov” and others. 
Specifications:
Crew: 4 people
Aircraft length: 54.1 m
Wingspan: 55.7/50.7/35.6 m
Height: 13.1 m
Wing area: 232 m²
Empty weight: 110,000 kg
Normal take-off weight: 267,600 kg
Maximum take-off weight: 275,000 kg
Engines: 4 × NK-32 turbofan engines
Maximum thrust: 4 × 18000 kgf
Afterburner thrust: 4 × 25000 kgf
Fuel mass, kg 148000
Flight characteristics:
Maximum speed at altitude: 2230 km/h (1.87M)
Cruising speed: 917 km/h (0.77 M)
Maximum flight range without refueling: 13950 km
Practical flight range without refueling: 12,300 km
Combat radius: 6000 km
Flight duration: 25 hours
Service ceiling: 15,000
Climbing rate: 4400 m/min
Takeoff length 900 m
Run length 2000 m
Wing load:
at maximum take-off weight: 1185 kg/m²
at normal take-off weight: 1150 kg/m²
Thrust-to-weight ratio:
at maximum take-off weight: 0.37
at normal take-off weight: 0.36
According to the Air Force's plans, strategic bombers will be modernized.
The final phases of testing are now underway, and development work is being completed. According to forecasts, the modernization should be completed in 2019. 
According to the commander of Russian long-range aviation, Igor Khvorov, the modernized aircraft will be able, in addition to cruise missiles, to hit targets using aerial bombs, will be able to use communications through space satellites and will have improved targeted fire characteristics. Electronic and aviation equipment will also undergo complete modernization.
Tu-160 is a supersonic strategic missile carrier with variable wing geometry. Designed to destroy the most important targets with nuclear and conventional weapons in remote military-geographical areas and deep behind the continental theaters of military operations.
Full-scale development of the Tu-160 supersonic strategic missile carrier-bomber was started at the Tupolev Design Bureau in 1975. Based on the proposals and recommendations of TsAGI, an aerodynamic configuration of a multi-mode aircraft was developed, which practically combined the capabilities of the Tu-95 aircraft with a swept wing of high aspect ratio, with a change in the sweep angle of the wing consoles in flight, tested on the Tu-22M long-range bomber, in combination with a central integral part of the aircraft, partially implemented on the SPS Tu-144.
The Tu-160 aircraft retained the characteristic features of a heavy classic bomber - a cantilever monoplane design, a high aspect ratio wing, four engines mounted on the wing (under its fixed part), a tricycle landing gear with a nose strut. All missile and bomb weapons are located inside in two identical weapons compartments. The crew of the strategic airship, consisting of four people, is located in a pressurized cabin located in the bow of the aircraft.
The first flight of the Tu-160 aircraft was carried out on December 18, 1981 by the crew of leading test pilot Boris Veremey. Flight tests confirmed the required performance, and in 1987 the aircraft began to enter service.
NATO assigned the preliminary designation "RAM-P", and later the aircraft was given a new code name - "Blackjack".
Flight characteristics:
Dimensions. Wing span 55.7/35.6 m, aircraft length 54.1 m, height 13.1 m, wing area 360/400 sq. m.
Number of places. Crew - four people.
Engines. Four NK‑32 turbofan engines (4x14,000/25,000 kgf) are placed under the wing in two engine nacelles. The APU is located behind the niche of the left main landing gear support. The engine control system is electric, with hydromechanical redundancy. There is a retractable fuel receiver boom for the in-flight refueling system (Il-78 or Il-78M are used as refueling aircraft).
Weights and loads, kg: maximum take-off 275,000, normal take-off 267,600, empty aircraft 110,000, fuel 148,000, normal combat load 9000 kg, maximum combat load 40,000.
Flight data. Maximum speed at high altitude 2000 km/h, maximum ground speed 1030 km/h, landing speed (with landing weight 140,000 - 155,000 kg) 260-300 km/h, maximum rate of climb 60-70 m/s, service ceiling 16,000 m, practical flight range with normal load 13,200 km, with maximum load 10,500 km, take-off length (at maximum take-off weight) 2,200 m, run length (landing weight 140,000 kg) 1,800 m.
Armament. Two intra-fuselage cargo compartments can accommodate various target loads with a total mass of up to 40,000 kg. It includes strategic cruise missiles (12 units on two multi-position drum-type launchers) and Kh-15 aeroballistic hypersonic missiles (24 units on four launchers).
In the future, the bomber's armament is planned to be significantly strengthened by introducing high-precision cruise missiles of a new generation, which have an increased range and are designed to destroy both strategic and tactical ground and sea targets of almost all classes.
The aircraft has a high level of computerization of on-board equipment. The information system in the cabins is represented by electromechanical indicators and indicators on monitors. The traditional steering wheels for large vehicles have been replaced with control sticks similar to those used on fighter aircraft.
The Russian Air Force currently has 15 Tu-160s in service. The leadership of the Russian Air Force plans to increase the number of such aircraft to 30.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
